Take a tour of the Printers' Marks Windows. Click on the number to see an image and description of each window.

                                                  

 

 

 

 

 

Twenty-seven beautifully tinted glass printers’ marks, colored primarily in soft grays, browns, and yellows and representing printers of France, Scotland, England, Switzerland, Italy, and the Netherlands, embellish the eight-by-sixteen foot windows of the Reference Room of the University Library. In the four corners of each window small patterns reproduce watermarks in the paper of manufacturers of the respective countries, even if they were not always used by the respective countries, and even if they were not always used by the printer with whose name they appear.

Printers’ marks are trademarks, publishers’ distinctive emblems on a book’s title page or, less frequently, in the colophon in the back. The first mark known, from Fust and Schöffer’s Mainz Psalter, 1476, shows a broken twig supporting two shields and compositors’ typesetting rules. These marks came into use with the spread of literacy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the founding of new universities, and the beginnings of Humanist thought in the Renaissance. Since books took on greater significance as printing presses grew to meet commercial and academic needs, it soon became necessary for printers to invent or adapt individual and trade signs as marks of identification in order to protect against reputation-damaging forgeries. Geometric designs, tools of trade, heraldic signs, house and street markers, mythological and real animals and figures, visual puns (rebuses), and ecclesiastical symbols are examples of the images on these marks.

Choices of printers’ marks for the newly built Library’s windows were based primarily on each printer’s historical prominence and only secondarily on the mark’s artistic appeal. Collaborating in the selection were the artist, J. Scott Williams; the architect, Charles A. Platt; the supervising architect, James M. White; and the Library Director, Phineas Windsor. Windsor submitted a list of possibilities to White, acknowledging that some of his choices might "not be artistic, but, among scholars and well-read people generally, I fear we would always have to be explaining why some of these names are omitted. I earnestly hope that you and Mr. Platt will see fit to include some of these names and to omit some of the less well-known printers he has included."

Most of the famous printers were included, but the designs of five, Davidson, Frellon, Wolfe, Berthelet and Hester--last on a final list and, according to Williams, "not so important but the architect likes their marks"--were also adapted for the windows. Williams, finding himself in a "middle position", wrote, "I naturally consulted with printing experts in the selection of important printers suitable to name their marks on the windows, but this view did not meet with the architect’s view who took the position that the mark should conform in the type and scale to the architectural style…I appreciate both points of view--that of architecture and that of scholarship, and I am endeavoring to harmonize them."

Since Windsor believed the windows would attract considerable attention, he advised utmost care in spelling and name forms. So crucial was this point that he noted, "I am inclined to suggest that the designs or a photograph of them be sent for final checking before the windows are made. I wish to do this in order to avoid even a remote possibility of any mistake creeping in. They will be scrutinized so critically that I think the utmost caution is worthwhile." (He need not have worried. Few library patrons today are even aware of the existence of the printers’ marks; most of the time readers disturbed by sunlight streaming through the windows ask librarians to draw Venetian blinds down over them.)

Williams combined painting, staining, firing, and etching to produce tinted glass with a minimum use of leading; the leading gives structure to the compositions rather than separating the portions into fragmented compartments as was typically done with small glass mosaic pieces in medieval stained glass windows.

The colors are soft and watery, not brilliant and jewel-like as in traditional works. Revealing something of his technique, the designer wrote that he and the glass loft’s craftsman determined what colors to employ by picking from the type, character, and color of the glass available. "Stained glasses are craftsman type glass… One company in New York imported German glass, another English glass and French flash glass, which we used when we etched with hydrofluoric acid to the color wanted." The flash glass he refers to is made by hand-blowing together different layers into the same sheet, so that one colored layer of glass remains when the other layer is etched away by acid. The line thus produced between the two colors is sharp and clean, and the two colors show in one piece of glass that is quite vivid when light shines through.

The descriptions of the windows which follow are arranged in geographical order, beginning with Antoine Verard, located to the left of the Reference Room entrance, and proceeding clockwise around the room and out to the last four over the main (grand) staircases. It should be noted that original books produced by all but one of these pioneering Renaissance printers (Dal Gesu) are in the University Library.

 

1. Antoine Verard, Paris

A prolific printer, calligrapher, illuminator, and bookseller, Verard published continuously for about forty-five years, mostly romances, the first of which was Boccaccio’s I Decamerone, issued in 1485. At the top of the mark is the shield bearing the French fleur-de-lis that symbolizes the spirit of knowledge. Underneath is a monogrammed heart held by two birds, probably falcons, customarily used by early Parisian printers in their emblems. The lilies below represent France.

 

2. Sebastian Gryphius, Lyons

The early-sixteenth-century printer of Latin classics, Sebastian Gryphe (or Gryphius) is among printers favoring imaginary beasts such as the unicorn, dragon, phoenix, and griffin in their marks. In characteristically French fashion, the griffin, which symbolized courage, watchfulness, and rapidity of execution, is used as a visual pun (rebus) of his family name. It appears in the eight or nine variations of his mark.

 

3. Christopher Froschover, Zurich
	Because of his profound attachment to the Calvinist cause, Froschover, the most prominent of early Swiss printers, printed and circulated editions of the Coverdale Bible in German, French, Italian, Flemish, and English. His trademark is a pun--frosch is the German word for frog--and depicts a child astride an enormous frog beneath a tree.

 

4. Christopher Plantin, Antwerp

Maintaining close connections with his native land throughout his life, this French-born Flemish printer had branch shops in Paris, Leyden, and Salamanca, and achieved a notable reputation with his Polyglot Bible and liturgical works. In his printer’s mark a compass always appears. Here it is shown suspended by a hand from clouds, with a scroll around it reading "Labore et Constantia" ("By labor and constancy"). The turning point signifies work; the stationary point, constancy. With the figure of Hercules on the left personifying labor and a feminine figure representing steadfastness, the theme is further emphasized.

 

5. Robert Estienne, Paris

The illustrious Estienne family stood first among Parisian printers of the time with Robert Estienne, a distinguished scholar, publishing editions of the classics containing his own prefaces and notes. Ecclesiastical authorities prohibited the use of his revolutionary version of the New Testament (1541), in which he subdivided the chapters into verses and added marginal references in order to make it more comprehensible. During the period of dispute and production he had to withdraw to the Court of the King. Featured in more than twenty marks associated with the family is the olive branch, their business emblem. Here a bearded, barefoot Moses stands beside an olive tree and falling bough. The message near his face is a portion of the motto "Noli altum sapere, sed time" ("Be not lofty, but fear," Romans 11:20).

 

6. John Day, London
	Another example of a visual pun is the mark of the English printer John Day (1522-84). A sleeper is being awakened. The words say "Arise for it is day," a pun on the craftsman’s name as well as an allusion to the dawn of the Reformation.

 

7. Nicolo e Domenico Dal Gesu, Venice
	The six-fold hourglass form on this mark is known as the Hexapla. The initials stand for the sixteenth-century firm’s name, "F" being "Fratelli." In the lower compartment are the words of their motto, "Soli Deo Onor et Gloria" ("Honor and glory to God alone").

 

8. Johann Froben, Basel

Froben’s trademark is a caduceus, held by two hands extending from clouds, with a crowned bird and crowned serpents’ heads. He introduced Roman letters into Germany and produced Erasmus’ edition of the New Testament in Greek. Erasmus in 1520 wrote of Froben and his printer’s mark: "If princes on this side of the Alps would encourage liberal studies with as much zeal as those of Italy, the serpents of Froben would not be so much less lucrative than the Dolphin of Aldus…"

 

9. Andre Wechel, Paris
	A wider range of subject matter appeared as the use of printers’ marks spread. An example of mythological imagery may be seen in Andre Wechel’s mark, which shows the winged horse Pegasus gracefully arched over a representation of Mercury’s caduceus.

 

10. Erhard Ratdolt, Augsburg

In Ratdolt’s heraldic printer’s mark, ordinarily known as the "Infant Hercules," Mercury holds two serpents entwined in a caduceus form. The star signifies a planet. As a German working in Venice in the years 1476-86 (he returned to Augsberg in 1487-1516), Ratdolt adapted Italian manuscript ornamentation and scrolls to create the first printed floral initial letters, called "flourishes." Especially beautiful woodcut initials and border embellishments can be found in the mathematical and astronomical volumes, which made up the bulk of his work. All the elements of a modern title page--book’s title and place and year of publication--are in the earliest known example, his Kalendarium, 1476, printed in partnership with two compatriots. His Euclid’s Elementa Geometri, 1482, is the oldest mathematical textbook still in common use. This work, which became a model for future mathematical texts, contains thirteen books. Scholars believe that Ratdolt used metal lines to achieve the distinct, neatly executed geometrical figures. The architects on the selection committee attached importance to aesthetic unity between the Library’s Georgian design and the windows’ motifs. In February, 1926, Williams wrote to the University’s supervising architect that he was enclosing the Ratdolt mark. "The leaf border seems to harmonize this otherwise Gothic or German type mark with the windows. Both Mr. Platt and Mr. Goldstone [his associate] are death on anything that favors a German Baroque effect. My printing expert advises the use of this mark."

 

11. Aldus Manutius, Venice

Among Italian publishers, none surpassed Aldus Manutius in scholarship, honor, and fame. To this humanist are owed the inventions of Italic type (cursive script) and the small portable format of books. Because he wanted to widen the audience for contemporary literary works in the vernacular as well as for texts of classical antiquity, he is responsible, too, for issuing these at reasonable cost. The Aldine family press used a variety of marks throughout its existence (1492-1598), and all incorporate the anchor and dolphin image. This Aldine anchor, as it is known, first appeared in 1502 and is based on an ancient Roman coin or medal with the motto "Festia lente," meaning "Make haste slowly." The anchor represents stability, and the dolphin, grace and speed in execution; "Aldus M. R." stands for Aldus Manutius Romanus to reflect the founder’s pride in being Roman-born.

 

12. Gutenberg, Fust and Schöffer, Mainz

In the center of the Reference Room opposite the entrance way is the only unauthentic printer’s mark in the Library windows, a combination of profiles of the three printers with Fust and Schöffer’s twin-shields trademark. Johann Gutenberg, inventor of movable type and maker of the renowned Gutenberg Bible, did not use a mark. But Johann Fust, his associate and successor, and Fust’s son-in-law, Peter Schöffer, issued a Latin Psalter in 1457 which has several distinctions: it was the third book printed from movable type; it was the earliest to have a date, place, and typographer’s name on it; and, most important in the context of the Library windows, it was the first book to have a printer’s mark in it--a horizontal broken twig supporting two shields on which are drawn compositor’s typesetting rules. The architect on the selection committee did not initially share the artist’s enthusiasm for this motif. "I am proud of this window," Williams wrote. "I tried to put over the mark before but they rejected the two shields which they claimed looked like two kidneys, but I found a device with the three portraits and submerged the Fust and Schöffer device with the three portraits and [then] submerged the Fust and Schöffer device to a small size and it suits. I gave up the device after the unfavorable reaction on the architect’s part." The Library director’s concern centered on possible negative responses from library patrons: The design of the Gutenberg, Fust and Schöffer window has many points in its favor, though I hope the artist and architects will carefully consider its possible effect on the users of the reading room. This window should be the most prominent one in the room immediately opposite the entrance; the three profiles, unless carefully handled, may possibly become the butts of frivolous student jokers. Aside form this consideration I have no personal objection to the design.

 

13. William Caxton, Westminster

Caxton’s mark first appeared in 1487. The design between the initials "WC" is thought to reproduce a merchant’s mark he used before becoming a printer, while the two small letters at either side which look like "S" and "C" are thought to stand for Sancta Colonia, the city of Cologne, where he most likely learned his craft. According to one authority, however, they mean nothing at all. A bibliophile and scholar, Caxton is honored as England’s first printer. Because his chief goal was to furnish specialists and students with the best of literature, he paid little attention to details such as initials, signatures, pagination, and title pages. Clarity and correctness were of prime importance to him. His first book, the Dictes or Sayenges of the Philosophers, was the first book printed in the vernacular, and was translated from the French by a friend. The majority of his work, however--some eighteen-thousand folio-size pages--he translated himself. Among his publications are Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Aesop’s Fables, the Golden Legend, the Canterbury Tales, Troilus and Cressida, the first edition of Morte d’Arthur, and the first English version of Reynard the Fox. According to the artist, the selection committee’s architect "rejected the complete incorporation of the mark with its heavy square border," and so he tried three times to integrate the mark. "The monogram is, of course, the recognized essential," he wrote White. "Can you accept it with the more Georgian border?"

 

14. Jehan Frellon, Lyons

In Lyons, between 1536 and 1568, the Frellon brothers, Jehan (Jean II) and Francois, collaborated in the production of carefully edited, beautiful books, many of which bore woodcut illustrations made from Holbein drawings. They used two very different marks: in the early years, a representation of a winged Justice, and after 1540 the "crab and moth" motif which is used in this window. As friend and sympathizer of leading Protestants Michel Servetus, Antoine Vincent, and Calvin himself, Jehan Frellon helped facilitate their correspondence and circulate their publications. In the New Testament edited by him in 1553 he showed the devil in Temptation of Christ as a monk with cloven feet.

 

15. Johannes Hamman de Landoia, Venice
	The first printer’s mark in Italy to combine the "four mark" with that of the orb (in this case as part of a monogram "I.H.") are those of the late-fifteenth-century printer, Hamman de Landoia. Few other instances of the combined mark are known and they are apparently the only examples of the "four mark" in Italy. All evidence points to a German prototype.

 

16. Henric Petri, Basel

From 1496 until the seventeenth century, the Petris printed in Basel, and for three generations--Adam Petri, Heinrich Petri, and Sebastian Henripetri--the printer’s mark alluded to the family name: a stone being smashed by a godlike hammer over which fire is blown by a heavenly face. The symbolism is explained by the biblical motto (Jer. 23:29) printed in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew in some books, "Is not my Word like fire, like a hammer shatters stone?" The architect and artist first thought of using Johann Amerbach’s mark for this window, but since an acceptable effect could not be achieved with it, substituted that of another Basel printer, Heinrich Petri. He was "not as important as Amerbach," Williams remarked, "[yet] he has some distinction and has a fine mark for the purpose."

 

17. Thomas Anshelm, Hagenau

Possibly the most illustrious of the early Hagenau printers, Anshelm worked in Strassburg and Hagenau from 1488 to 1522. All his marks carry the initials "T.A.B." with a Hebrew inscription which represents the name Jehovah. The artist found the design difficult to harmonize because of its scale. He later wrote, "Enclosed is also the Thomas Anshelm device--relieved in its severity by a little ornament. Mr. Goldstone approved the general scale and appearance of these devices and they have been altered a little in their ornamentation on his advisement and since he saw them."

 

18. Andrew Hester, London
	Andrew Hester, a bookseller in the "White Horse," St. Paul’s Church Yard, seems to have had his edition of the Coverdale Bible made for him by Froschover of Zurich in 1550. His mark consists of a florid border, an orb, and identifiable but enigmatic initial letters "SER.".

 

19. Luca A. Giunta, Florence

Among the handsome marks in the early Italian bookmaking history is Luca Antonio Giunta’s red fleur-de-lis. From 1480 to 1598 the Giunta (or Junta) family successively operated a printing establishment at Florence, and all used this emblem in their printers’ marks. After the Aldine press, the Giunta was the most famous in Italy. A sumptuous Gradual "According to the Custom of the Holy Roman Church," in folio, 1527, is owned by the library.

 

20. Ottaviano Scotto, Venice
	Spheres, crosses, orbs, rings or circles, and other ecclesiastical symbols long associated with traditional manuscript illumination continued in use for printed book designs. A good example of this is Ottaviano Scotto’s mark (late fifteenth century) which combines crosses and circles in red against a white background with the initials "OSM" for his name and birthplace, Monza.

 

21. Jean de Tournes, Lyons

This mark, the first of seven used by Jean de Tournes, dates to 1542, the year of his establishment as a printer, and is used in Erasmus’ Chevalier Chrestien, printed that year. A tablet with three volutes is held by a hand, and on it is the motto "Quod tibi fieri nos vis, alteri ne feceris," meaning "What you do not want to happen to you, do not do to another." Around the tablet, the acanthus-entwined border carries the words "Virum de mille unum reperi. Eccl’s VII," or "One man out of a thousand have I found true. Ecclesiastes VII."

 

22. Louis Elzevir, Leyden

The best known of the four marks of the Elzevir family shows a sphere and a hermit or sage next to an elm tree entwined with a grapevine. On a scroll is the motto "Non Solus," which signifies "The scholar prefers solitude but is never alone when he has the scholarship of books." As commercial publishers-distributors reaching for a mass audience in the late-sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Elzevirs, not being scholars themselves, hired experts to ensure accuracy, and issued approximately 2,000 works, mostly reproductions of texts published by early printers. These volumes, though textually and typographically correct, did not always emphasize artistic craftsmanship. The University owns several hundred books from the Elzevir presses.

 

23. Reginald Wolfe, London
	Three children shake and retrieve fruit from a handsomely drawn leafy tree in Reginald Wolfe’s trademark, thought by many critics to be one of the most artistic in use in the third quarter of the sixteenth century.

 

24. Arnold Birckmann, Cologne

In the early sixteenth century, Francis Birckmann established his internationally-connected family press in Cologne in pingui gallina, "at the sign of the fat hen," in a street named Unter Fettenhennen. Arnold Birckmann, his brother, took over the business c. 1529 and ran it until his death in 1542. For some 250 years after that, descendents continued publishing humanistic treatises, including Tyndale’s New Testament, Sarum Missals, and other such works. Their mark appears in numerous variants, always with a depiction of a fat hen. The motto on the Library window border, "Utilia semper nova saepius profero," translates as "I am always bringing forth useful things and often new things."

 

25. Badius Ascensius, Paris

Ascensius’ mark is the earliest known illustration of a printing press. It appeared in 1507 and shows the press in action at the instant the printer puts great effort into pulling the lever. This causes the screws to force the platen down upon the press, which produces an impression upon the paper. In the logo at the bottom of the mark are the initials "I B," which stand for Josse Bade, his original, Gallicized name.

 

26. Thomas Davidson, Edinburgh
	Thomas Davidson, a sixteenth-century printer working in Edinburgh, copied the mark of another printer, Peter Treveris, for his own. It is a densely packed, symmetrical arrangement with two wild men holding a shield under grapevines.

 

27. Thomas Berthelet, London

Berthelet, one of the early-sixteenth century’s most productive printers, held the office of King’s Printer to Henry VIII, whose successor, the reforming Edward VI, removed Berthelet from the post because of his unacceptable religious beliefs. Since printers often adapted street signs for their marks, he took "ye signe of Lucrece," near which his shop was located on Fleet Street, and depicted the beautiful figure of Lucretia Romana. His own name is on the scroll.